Stroke is the leading cause of disability and most of the cases are those of ischemic stroke. Management strategies especially for large vessel occlusive stroke have undergone a significant change in the recent years that include widespread use of thrombolytic medications followed by endovascular clot removal. For successful treatment by endovascular thrombectomy, the important factors are patient selection based on clinical criterion including age, time of onset, premorbid clinical condition, co-morbidities, National Institute of Health Stroke Scale, and imaging criterion including computed tomography (CT) head, CT angiogram and CT perfusion. Patients presenting within 4.5 hours of onset are considered for intravenous (IV) recombinant tissue plasminogen activator treatment. Mechanical clot retrieval devices have evolved over the past decade. The Mechanical Embolus Removal in Cerebral Ischemia device was approved first followed by the penumbra revascularization system. They have proven in various studies to improve recanalization with acceptable rates of symptomatic intra-cerebral hemorrhage. Introduction of stent retrievers has led to a new era in the interventional management of acute ischemic stroke (AIS). Recent trials namely MRCLEAN, ESCAPE, SWIFT PRIMEs, and EXTEND-IA have used the stent retriever predominantly and have shown unequivocal benefit in the outcome at 90 days for AIS patients with large vessel occlusion. More recently, a new catheter namely 5 MAX ACE was introduced along with improvement in the suction device. This has led to a direct aspiration first pass technique resulting in faster recanalization. Advancements in the endovascular management of AIS with large vessel occlusion have resulted in a paradigm shift in the way this disease is managed. Improvements in patient selection using clinical and imaging criterion along with technical and technological advancements in mechanical thrombectomy have made possible a significantly improved outcome in stroke patients.

We present our experience in managing pathologies involving the anterior and middle cranial base using an endoscopic transnasal approach, highlighting the surgical technique, indications, and complications. The different types of endoscopic approaches used include the transtuberculum/transplanum, transcribiform, transsellar, and cavernous sinus approaches. The common indications include repair of cerebrospinal fluid leaks (both spontaneous and post traumatic) and excision of pituitary adenomas, meningiomas, craniopharyngiomas, esthesioneuroblastomas, and other malignancies of the anterior cranial base. Careful reconstruction is performed with the multilayer technique utilizing fat, fascia lata, and fibrin sealant. The endoscopic transnasal approach, coupled with the present-day sophisticated neuronavigation systems, allows access to lesions in the midline extending from the cribriform plate to the craniovertebral junction. However, preoperative planning and careful selection of cases with evaluation of each case on an individual basis with regard to the lateral extension of the lesion are imperative.

Objectives: Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a granulomatous large vessel vasculitis with very scarce data from India. The purpose of this study was to present a comprehensive data of all published Indian cases along with our experience from North India. Materials and Methods: This was a retrospective study of all patients diagnosed to be having GCA according to the American College of Rheumatology criteria at a large tertiary care hospital. The demographic data, clinical, investigations, treatment details, and outcomes were noted. Details of all case series and case reports published from India were pooled along with our experience in order to generate a cumulative data of all cases from India. This was then compared with several large published case series from South America, Europe, and Asia. Results: A total of 72 patients (17 patients in the present series and another 55 patients from other Indian case series and case reports) were identified. The findings of our study are similar to the studies published from other parts of the world, except for the onset of the disease a decade earlier, a male predilection, a lower temporal artery biopsy positivity, and a higher incidence of ophthalmic complications. Conclusions: Indian patients with GCA have an earlier age of onset, male preponderance, and higher ophthalmic complications.

Objectives: Autoimmune neuronal synaptic encephalitis (AIE) encompasses a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by immune-mediated neuronal cell destruction. In this study, we aim to study the clinical features, imaging profile and treatment outcome of patients with AIE. Methods:This is a chart review of 16 (M: F-3:13) patients with AIE from 2011 to 2015. Results:Among the patients, 10 had anti-NMDA, 4 had anti-TPO, and 2 had anti-VGKC antibody positivity. Cognitive impairment and seizures were the predominant symptoms present in nearly all patients, followed by psychiatric disturbances (87.5%), mutism (62.5%), movement disorders (62.5%), myoclonic jerks (37.5%) and visual hallucinations (18.75%). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain was available in 15 patients; it was abnormal in 53.3% patients. Abnormalities were seen in all patients with anti-VGKC positivity; and, 60% of patients with anti-NMDA positivity. Imaging was normal in 26.7% of the patients (3: anti-NMDA; and, 1: anti-TPO positivity); and, diffuse cerebral atrophy was noted in rest of the 20% (3: anti-TPO positivity) patients. All patients improved gradually with immunomodulation. Conclusions: All patients with anti-VGKC, anti-NMDA and anti-TPO antibody positivity presented with a triad of behavioral changes, impaired cognition and seizures. Mutism was a predominant symptom in patients with an anti-NMDA antibody positivity, which may help in the early identification of this disorder. MRI brain showed changes restricted to limbic structures in anti-NMDA and anti-VGKC antibody positivity. An early diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune encephalitis is essential for a better outcome and for prevention of long-term sequel.

Background: Citicoline is a novel neuroprotective agent used in acute stroke with a significantly favorable outcome. Materials and Methods: A hundred patients who suffered from either an ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke and who presented to the hospital within 48 h of stroke onset were enrolled for the study. Of these 100 patients (age- and sex-matched), 50 patients were treated with citicoline along with the standard stroke management and considered as 'cases'. The other 50 patients who were administered the standard stroke treatment were considered as 'controls.' The baseline parameters of the patients was assessed using the National Institute of Health Stroke Scale. The patients were reassessed at follow up at the end of the 1^st and 3^rd month of the commencement of the therapy and their outcome was evaluated by the Barthel Index score (BI). Results: The mean BI scores of all categories at the 1^st and 3^rd month were significantly higher in the citicoline treatment group (P < 0.001 at the 1^st month and P = 0.002 at the 3^rd month). An analysis of the categorized BI score showed that there was a significant difference in the number of patients in the categorized BI score (85–100) (at the 1^st month follow-up: 0% in control vs. 7% in case group [P < 0.05]; and, at the 3^rd month follow-up: 10% in control vs. 36% in citicoline case group [P < 0.05]). In the subgroup analysis, both patients suffering from either ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke (including all categories of BI score) in the citicoline treatment group showed a significantly higher mean BI score at the 1^st month (ischemic: P = 0.003, hemorrhagic: P =0.04) and also at the end of the 3^rd month (ischemic: P = 0.03, hemorrhagic: P = 0.03). An analysis of the categorized BI score (85–100) at the end of the 3^rd month in both the hemorrhagic as well as the ischemic subgroups showed a significant incidence of improvement in the citicoline group compared with the control group (hemorrhagic-- control: 6.66% vs. case: 31.81%, P < 0.05 and ischemic-- control: 11.41% vs. case: 35.71%, P < 0.05). Conclusion: In patients suffering from stroke and presenting within 48 h of onset, treatment with citicholine increases the probability of complete recovery and a favorable outcome at the 1^st month and at the end of the 3^rd month in all the stroke groups.

Background: Moya Moya disease (MMD) is one of the most common cerebro-vascular diseases in children resulting in stroke. Surgical revascularization aims at improving the perfusion to the 'at-risk' ischemic brain. Several factors including peri-operative anesthetic related ones, affect the outcome in these children. This study was performed with the aim to explore the role of anesthetic techniques, pharmacological agents and perioperative management strategies on the neurological outcome following an indirect revascularization procedure for the treatment of MMD. Materials and Methods: This was a retrospective chart review of pediatric indirect revascularization procedures for MMD during a three year period at a tertiary neurosciences hospital in southern India. Demographic details, disease characteristics and variables related to anesthetic management were obtained from the patient's charts and analyzed. The main outcome measure was occurrence of postoperative new neurological complications; and, the secondary outcome was length of hospital stay after surgery. Results: Twenty-two children underwent thirty indirect revascularization procedures, of which four patients had new postoperative neurological complications. One child died due to bilateral cerebral infarcts following bilateral surgery as a single stage under the same anesthesia. Female gender and a higher opioid dose were associated with occurrence of postoperative neurological deficits. Younger age, prolonged anesthetic duration and occurrence of postoperative neurological deficits were associated with prolonged postoperative hospital stay. However, none of these factors were predictive of either an adverse neurological outcome or a prolonged hospital stay. Conclusion: In this study, anesthetic techniques or medications did not influence the occurrence of postoperative neurological deficits or prolonged hospital stay after an indirect revascularization procedure in children with MMD.

Objective: To determine the feasibility and efficacy of occipital nerve stimulation (ONS) in patients with refractory headaches secondary to idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH). Background: IIH is a syndrome characterized by elevated intracranial pressures in the absence of a mass lesion. These patients typically present with chronic and intractable headaches. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) diversion fails in relieving the headache in a significant proportion of this population. ONS has been shown to be effective in medically refractory headaches and to our knowledge, has not been attempted as a therapeutic modality in this population. Methods: Four patients with occipital predominant chronic daily headaches and IIH who failed medical management underwent bilateral ONSs. Octopolar percutaneous electrodes were implanted in the defined area of pain. Visual Analog Scale (VAS) was used as an outcome measure. Patient demographics and surgical complications were also reviewed in this retrospective study. Following the trial period, all patients had >50% pain reduction resulting in permanent implantation. Results: All 4 patients had an average improvement of their VAS scores by 75%, with 85% spatial coverage and the remainder of the uncovered region being frontal. Sustained benefits were seen up to 3 years of follow-up. One patient had a lead erosion requiring removal followed by delayed re-implantation and another lost treatment efficacy at 2 years resulting in explantation. One patient required CSF diversion due to visual threat during the follow-up period but maintained sustained benefit from her ONS. Conclusions: Bilateral ONS may be a useful treatment option in the management of selected patients with IIH, after standard surgical interventions have been attempted. Bilateral ONS may provide therapeutic option for management of residual headaches in these complicated patients.

Background: Postoperative diabetes insipidus (DI) is a significant cause of morbidity in craniopharyngiomas (CP) and its effective management improves outcome. Objective: The objective was to determine the efficacy of a treatment protocol in the management of early postoperative DI in CP. Materials and Methods: The quality of postoperative DI control in a prospective cohort of 26 patients treated utilizing a strict protocol (Group 1) was compared with a retrospective cohort of 34 patients (Group 2) managed without a protocol. A 6-h urine output more than 4 ml/kg/h or serum sodium (Na⁺) more than 145 mEq/L was diagnosed as DI. The quality of DI control was assessed by determining the incidence of serum Na⁺ values above 150 mEq/L or below 130 mEq/L and the incidence of wide (>10 mEq/L) intra-day fluctuations of serum Na⁺ levels. Results: The occurrence of high and low serum Na⁺ levels was significantly lower in Group 1(P = 0.032). The incidence of serum Na⁺ exceeding 150 mEq/L on postoperative days 2 and 3 was significantly higher in Group 2 as compared with those in Group 1 (25% vs. 7.6%, P = 0.0008). Hyponatremia was more frequent in Group 2 and tended to occur on postoperative days 6, 7, and 8 (14.2% vs. 3.2%; P = 0.004). The same patients who had hypernatremia in the early part of the week later developed hyponatremia. Although the incidence of wide intra-day fluctuations (>10 mEq/L) was higher in Group 2, it did not reach statistical significance. Conclusion: A strict protocol based management results in better control of postoperative DI in CP.

Background: Management of petroclival meningiomas (PCMs) is a surgeons' challenge. Planning the surgical approach and extent of excision play a vital role. The current study discusses a novel grading system that may help to choose the surgical approach. Materials and Methods: We prospectively analyzed 76 patients operated after selecting the surgical approach through a novel grading system based on the extent of dural attachment of PCM in the posterior fossa. Results: The mean age of the study group was 39.74 ± 13.38 years and 51% of the patients were women. Gross total resection (GTR) was achieved in 59 (77.6%) patients. Among patients who underwent subtotal resection (STR), the mean sagittal diameter of the tumor was greater than axial (4.6 ± 0.9 mm vs. 3.4 ± 1.3 mm; P = 0.01) and coronal diameters (4.6 ± 0.9 mm vs. 3.8 ± 1.4 mm; P < 0.01). The complication rate was 34.2%. The most frequent complication was cerebrospinal fluid leak in 10 (13.1%) patients. In patients where STR was done, the sagittal diameter of the tumor was higher in patients without complications (4.5 ± 0.9 mm vs. 3.9 ± 1.1 mm; P = 0.02). At 6 years follow-up, 6 patients where STR was performed, developed tumor progression. Conclusion: The proposed grading is helpful in achieving higher rates of GTR with minimal complications in surgical excision of PCMs. The role of sagittal diameter in planning the extent of excision needs further research.

Context: Pterional or fronto-temporal craniotomy, developed by Prof. M. G. Yasargil, is among the most familiar skull base surgery techniques. The cranio-orbito zygomatic (COZ) approach evolved to address the significant limitations of the pterional exposure in excising some parasellar lesions. Although extremely versatile, the COZ technique involves extensive dissection of the cranio-facial soft tissue and reconstruction towards the end of the procedure. The zygomatic reshaping is a minor modification of the pterional approach, which enhances the exposure possible through the classical approach and often circumvents the need for an orbito-zygomatic osteotomy. Aims: To demonstrate the technique of reshaping of the zygomatic complex for an optimum surgical exposure and cosmetic results. Materials and Methods: Between April 2013 and December 2014, 8 patients with various middle and anterior skull base lesions were operated using this technique. These patients form the clinical material for this study. The clinical details, radiological images and follow-up data of these patients were collected for this clinical series. Results: No mortality or significant morbidity were noted in this series. The post-operative cosmetic results were also acceptable. Conclusions: A quick and easy modification of the classical pterional approach through zygomatic reshaping has the potential to provide a significantly enhanced surgical exposure for parasellar lesions. Using this approach, it might be possible to avoid an extensive orbito-zygomatic osteotomy in suitable lesions.

Background: Navigable ultrasound (NUS) is a useful adjunct for controlling resection in intra-axial brain tumors. We investigated its role in predicting residual disease and thereby in influencing the intraoperative decision regarding additional resection as also its influence on survival in glioblastoma patients. Methods: A prospectively maintained database was accessed to retrieve the data regarding consecutive histologically verified gliomas operated using the NUS. We documented the number of times US images were obtained, the surgeon's impression of each scan and the subsequent decision regarding further resection. Survival (progression-free and overall) was calculated for patients with a glioblastoma, and univariate and multivariate analyses performed. Results: The NUS was used for resection control in 88 gliomas. In 66 cases, intermediate scans were performed resulting in further resection in 60 of them. Radiological gross total resection was obtained in 46 cases (44%). The US correctly predicted postoperative residue in 83% cases (sensitivity and specificity of 87 and 78% respectively; positive and negative predictive values of 82 and 84%). There were 9 false positives and 6 false negative cases. When the US was false positive, the resolution was more often good (7 of 9 cases); whereas when there were false negatives, it was more likely to be less than optimal (4 of 6). Morbidity was 17% and this was not related to the additional resections. In the subset of glioblastoma patients (n = 28) use of NUS was associated with significantly better progression-free as well as overall survival rates. Conclusions: NUS is a useful intraoperative adjunct in controlling resections. It positively and decisively influences the intraoperative course of the surgery. Understanding its correct technique and limitations, along with experience in image interpretation can help in maximizing its accuracy without compromising functional outcomes. Optimally utilized, it can improve survival.

Accurate localization of the “epileptogenic zone (EZ)” is an important issue in epilepsy surgery. The EZ is not discrete and focal; in fact, the epileptogenic networks can spread ictal activity to different regions of the brain. Changes in network characteristics and functional connectivity are shown to be associated with epilepsy. Seizures are thought to represent a hyper-synchronous state and presumable changes in synchronization between different brain regions underlie the mechanisms of seizure spread. Although presurgical evaluation of the epileptogenic network analysis can be carried out using existing investigative techniques like electroencephalogram (EEG), video-EEG, magnetic resonance imaging, single-photon emission computed tomography, and magnetoencephalography, advanced imaging techniques such as optical intrinsic spectroscopy, auto-fluorescence imaging, voltage sensitive dye imaging, and calcium imaging have the advantage of better spatiotemporal resolution over a large area of cortex. Understanding the wide-scale dynamic networks by analyzing the changes in the synchronization patterns using advanced imaging techniques will be instrumental in the presurgical analysis of the epileptogenic network and better localization of the EZs in the future.

All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi is considered as the apex healthcare institute of the country. The Department of Neurology was established in the 1960's and continues to be a leader in the country, in providing quality health care, in teaching, and also in conducting cutting edge research. The article traces the history of the Department of Neurology at AIIMS from its inception to the present day.